Parallel-computing

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wikipedia-Parallel-computing
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Concurrent-computing
Concurrent-computing
- Concurrent-computing
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- Expert-Jeff-Preshing
  Expert-Jeff-Preshing
  - Introduction
  - Performance
    Performance
    
    The-Cost-of-Enabling-Exception-Handling
    The-Cost-of-Enabling-Exception-Handling
    
    Introduction
  - Multithread
    Multithread
    
    Introduction
    
    01-Locks-Aren't-Slow-Lock-Contention-Is
    01-Locks-Aren't-Slow-Lock-Contention-Is
    
    Introduction
    
    02-Always-Use-a-Lightweight-Mutex
    02-Always-Use-a-Lightweight-Mutex
    
    Introduction
    
    03-A-C++Profiling-Module-for-Multithreaded-APIs
    03-A-C++Profiling-Module-for-Multithreaded-APIs
    
    Introduction
    
    04-A-Look-Back-at-Single-Threaded-CPU-Performance
    04-A-Look-Back-at-Single-Threaded-CPU-Performance
    
    Introduction
    
    05-Roll-Your-Own-Lightweight-Mutex
    05-Roll-Your-Own-Lightweight-Mutex
    
    Introduction
    
    Benaphore
    Benaphore
    
    Introduction
    
    06-Implementing-a-Recursive-Mutex
    06-Implementing-a-Recursive-Mutex
    
    Introduction
    
    07-Lightweight In-Memory Logging
    07-Lightweight In-Memory Logging
    
    Introduction
  - Hash-map
    Hash-map
    
    Introduction
    
    Hash-Collision-Probabilities
    Hash-Collision-Probabilities
    
    Introduction
    
    Hash-Table-Performance-Tests
    Hash-Table-Performance-Tests
    
    Introduction
  - Lock-Free-Programming
    Lock-Free-Programming
    
    Introduction
    
    02-Memory-Reordering-Caught-in-the-Act
    02-Memory-Reordering-Caught-in-the-Act
    
    Introduction
    
    gcc-source-code
    
    03-An-Introduction-to-Lock-Free-Programming
    03-An-Introduction-to-Lock-Free-Programming
    
    Introduction
    
    04-Memory-Ordering-at-Compile-Time
    04-Memory-Ordering-at-Compile-Time
    
    Introduction
    
    05-Memory-Barriers-Are-Like-Source-Control-Operations
    05-Memory-Barriers-Are-Like-Source-Control-Operations
    
    Introduction
    
    06-Acquire-and-Release-Semantics
    06-Acquire-and-Release-Semantics
    
    Introduction
    
    07-Weak-vs-Strong-Memory-Models
    07-Weak-vs-Strong-Memory-Models
    
    Introduction
    
    08-This-Is-Why-They-Call-It-a-Weakly-Ordered-CPU
    08-This-Is-Why-They-Call-It-a-Weakly-Ordered-CPU
    
    Introduction
    
    09-Atomic-vs-Non-Atomic-Operations
    09-Atomic-vs-Non-Atomic-Operations
    
    Introduction
    
    10-The-Happens-Before-Relation
    10-The-Happens-Before-Relation
    
    Introduction
    
    11-The-Synchronizes-With-Relation
    11-The-Synchronizes-With-Relation
    
    Introduction
    
    12-Acquire-and-Release-Fences
    12-Acquire-and-Release-Fences
    
    Introduction
    
    13-Double-Checked-Locking-is-Fixed-In-C++11
    13-Double-Checked-Locking-is-Fixed-In-C++11
    
    Introduction
    
    14-Acquire-and-Release-Fences-Don’t-Work-the-Way-You’d-Expect
    14-Acquire-and-Release-Fences-Don’t-Work-the-Way-You’d-Expect
    
    Introduction
    
    15-The-Purpose-of-memory_order_consume-in-C++11
    15-The-Purpose-of-memory_order_consume-in-C++11
    
    Introduction
    
    16-You-Can-Do-Any-Kind-of-Atomic-Read-Modify-Write-Operation
    16-You-Can-Do-Any-Kind-of-Atomic-Read-Modify-Write-Operation
    
    Introduction
  - TODO-Preshing-Safe-Bitfields-in-C++
    TODO-Preshing-Safe-Bitfields-in-C++
    
    Introduction
  - TODO-Preshing-Semaphores-are-Surprisingly-Versatile
    TODO-Preshing-Semaphores-are-Surprisingly-Versatile
    
    Introduction
  - Library-cpp11-on-multicore
    Library-cpp11-on-multicore
    
    Introduction
    
    Read-code
    Read-code
    
    Introduction
    
    inmemorylogger
    inmemorylogger
    
    Introduction
- Expert-iter_zc
  Expert-iter_zc
  - Introduction
  - CSDN-聊聊高并发-5-理解缓存一致性协议以及对并发编程的影响
    CSDN-聊聊高并发-5-理解缓存一致性协议以及对并发编程的影响
    
    Introduction
  - CSDN-聊聊高并发-6-实现几种自旋锁一
    CSDN-聊聊高并发-6-实现几种自旋锁一
    
    Introduction
  - CSDN-聊聊高并发-7-实现几种自旋锁二
    CSDN-聊聊高并发-7-实现几种自旋锁二
    
    Introduction
- Expert-1024cores
  Expert-1024cores
  - Introduction
  - Lockfree-Algorithms
    Lockfree-Algorithms
    
    Lockfree-Algorithms
    
    TODO-Introduction
    TODO-Introduction
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-Producer-Consumer-Queues
    TODO-Producer-Consumer-Queues
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-Lazy-Concurrent-Initialization
    TODO-Lazy-Concurrent-Initialization
    
    Introduction
- Expert-Cameron
  Expert-Cameron
  - Introduction
  - Library-readerwriterqueue
    Library-readerwriterqueue
    
    Introduction
  - Library-concurrentqueue
    Library-concurrentqueue
    
    Introduction
- Course-tau-Multiprocessor-Programming-CS-0368-4061-01
  Course-tau-Multiprocessor-Programming-CS-0368-4061-01
  - Introduction
- Course-uhcl-Concurrency
  Course-uhcl-Concurrency
  - Introduction
- Concurrency-control
  Concurrency-control
  - Introduction
  - Synchronization
    Synchronization
    
    Introduction
  - Lock
    Lock
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-Mutex
    TODO-Mutex
    
    Introduction
    
    Linux-Seqlock
    Linux-Seqlock
    
    Introduction
    
    Read–write-lock
    Read–write-lock
    
    Introduction
    
    Spinlock
    Spinlock
    
    Introduction
    
    Spinning-lock-optimization
    Spinning-lock-optimization
    
    Introduction
    
    paper-Algorithms-for-Scalable-Synchronization
    paper-Algorithms-for-Scalable-Synchronization
    
    Introduction
    
    paper-Spinlock-with-timeout
    paper-Spinlock-with-timeout
    
    Introduction
    
    paper
    paper
    
    Introduction
    
    Ticket-lock
    Ticket-lock
    
    Introduction
    
    library-geidav-spinlocks-bench
    library-geidav-spinlocks-bench
    
    Introduction
    
    library-honkiko-Multi-Core-Toolbox
    library-honkiko-Multi-Core-Toolbox
    
    Introduction
    
    library-bogachevdmitry-CLHLock
    library-bogachevdmitry-CLHLock
    
    Introduction
    
    Double-checked-locking
    Double-checked-locking
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-Hand-over-hand-lock
    TODO-Hand-over-hand-lock
    
    Introduction
    
    Disadvantage
    Disadvantage
    
    Introduction
    
    Deadlock-and-livelock
    Deadlock-and-livelock
    
    Introduction
    
    Starvation
    Starvation
    
    Introduction
    
    Granularity-of-lock
    Granularity-of-lock
    
    Introduction
    
    Evaluation-metric
    Evaluation-metric
    
    Introduction
  - Barrier
    Barrier
    
    Introduction
  - Non-blocking
    Non-blocking
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-Level-of-free
    TODO-Level-of-free
    
    Introduction
    
    Liveness
    Liveness
    
    Introduction
    
    Lock-free
    Lock-free
    
    Introduction
    
    Primer
    Primer
    
    microsoft-Lockless-Programming-Considerations-for-Xbox-360-and-Microsoft-Windows
    microsoft-Lockless-Programming-Considerations-for-Xbox-360-and-Microsoft-Windows
    
    Introduction
    
    Atomic-operation
    Atomic-operation
    
    Introduction
    
    Atomic-instruction
    
    Memory-barrier
    Memory-barrier
    
    Introduction
    
    Copy-on-write
    Copy-on-write
    
    Introduction
    
    wikipedia-Copy-on-write
    
    Memory-reclamation
    Memory-reclamation
    
    Introduction
    
    cs.toronto-Comparative-Performance-of-Memory-Reclamation-Strategies
    cs.toronto-Comparative-Performance-of-Memory-Reclamation-Strategies
    
    Introduction
    
    Quiescent-state-based-reclamation-QSBR
    Quiescent-state-based-reclamation-QSBR
    
    Introduction
    
    Epoch-Based-Reclamation-EBR
    Epoch-Based-Reclamation-EBR
    
    Introduction
    
    Hazard-pointer-based reclamation-HPBR
    Hazard-pointer-based reclamation-HPBR
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-Hazard-pointer
    TODO-Hazard-pointer
    
    Introduction
    
    preshing-Using-Quiescent-States-to-Reclaim-Memory
    preshing-Using-Quiescent-States-to-Reclaim-Memory
    
    Introduction
    
    Read-copy-update
    Read-copy-update
    
    Introduction
    
    lwn-User-space-RCU
    lwn-User-space-RCU
    
    Introduction
    
    Version-based
    Version-based
    
    Introduction
    
    MVCC
    MVCC
    
    Introduction
    
    Timestamp-based-concurrency-control
  - Transactional-memory
    Transactional-memory
    
    Introduction
  - Optimistic-and-pessimistic
    Optimistic-and-pessimistic
    
    Introduction
    
    zhihu-你了解乐观锁和悲观锁吗
    zhihu-你了解乐观锁和悲观锁吗
    
    Introduction
  - Non-blocking-VS-blocking
    Non-blocking-VS-blocking
    
    Introduction
    
    Lock-free-VS-lock-based
    Lock-free-VS-lock-based
    
    Introduction
- Classic-problem
  Classic-problem
  - Introduction
  - Producer–consumer-problem
    Producer–consumer-problem
    
    Introduction
    
    Unbounded-producer-and-consumer-problem
  - Readers–writers-problem
    Readers–writers-problem
    
    Introduction
  - Dining-philosopher
    Dining-philosopher
    
    Introduction
    
    mariusbancila-Dining-philosopher
    mariusbancila-Dining-philosopher
    
    Introduction
    
    Chandy-Misra-algorithm
    Chandy-Misra-algorithm
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-howardhinnant-Dining-Philosophers-Rebooted
    TODO-howardhinnant-Dining-Philosophers-Rebooted
    
    Introduction
  - Checkpoint-Synchronization
    Checkpoint-Synchronization
    
    Introduction
  - Sleeping-barber-problem
    Sleeping-barber-problem
    
    Introduction
  - Cigarette-smokers-problem
    Cigarette-smokers-problem
    
    Introduction
- Concurrent-data-structure
  Concurrent-data-structure
  - Introduction
  - Queue
    Queue
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-paper-obstruction-free synchronization-double-ended-queues
    TODO-paper-obstruction-free synchronization-double-ended-queues
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-paper-wait-free-queue-with-multiple-enqueuers-and-dequeuers
    TODO-paper-wait-free-queue-with-multiple-enqueuers-and-dequeuers
    
    Introduction
    
    Circular-queue
    Circular-queue
    
    Introduction
  - Hash-table
    Hash-table
    
    Introduction
  - Linked-list
    Linked-list
    
    Introduction
  - Collection-library
    Collection-library
    
    Introduction
    
    Library-libcds
    Library-libcds
    
    Introduction
    
    Library-libcds
  - Course-Practical-lock-free-data-structures
    Course-Practical-lock-free-data-structures
    
    Introduction
    
    paper-Concurrent-Programming-Without-Locks
    paper-Concurrent-Programming-Without-Locks
    
    Introduction
    
    paper-Non-blocking-hashtables-with-open-addressing
    paper-Non-blocking-hashtables-with-open-addressing
    
    Introduction
  - TODO-simongui-Improving-performance-of-lockless-data-structures
    TODO-simongui-Improving-performance-of-lockless-data-structures
    
    Introduction
- Design-and-optimize
  Design-and-optimize
  - Introduction
- 秒杀-流量削峰
  秒杀-流量削峰
  - Introduction
Multithread
Multithread
- Introduction
- Expert-Herb-Sutter
  Expert-Herb-Sutter
  - Introduction
  - 01-The-Pillars-of-Concurrency
    01-The-Pillars-of-Concurrency
    
    Introduction
  - 02-How-Much-Scalability-Do-You-Have-or-Need
    02-How-Much-Scalability-Do-You-Have-or-Need
    
    Introduction
  - 06-Use-Lock-Hierarchies-to-Avoid-Deadlock
    06-Use-Lock-Hierarchies-to-Avoid-Deadlock
    
    Introduction
  - 07-TODO-Break-Amdahl's-Law
    07-TODO-Break-Amdahl's-Law
    
    Introduction
  - 11-Maximize-Locality-Minimize-Contention
    11-Maximize-Locality-Minimize-Contention
    
    Introduction
  - 12-Choose-Concurrency-Friendly-Data-Structures
    12-Choose-Concurrency-Friendly-Data-Structures
    
    Introduction
  - 15-TODO-Writing-Lock-Free-Code-A-Corrected-Queue
    15-TODO-Writing-Lock-Free-Code-A-Corrected-Queue
    
    Introduction
  - 20-TODO-Sharing-Is-the-Root-of-All-Contention
    20-TODO-Sharing-Is-the-Root-of-All-Contention
    
    Introduction
  - 31-Prefer-Using-Active-Objects-Instead-of-Naked-Thread
    31-Prefer-Using-Active-Objects-Instead-of-Naked-Thread
    
    Introduction
- Thread-safety
  Thread-safety
  - Introduction
  - What-cause-unsafety
    What-cause-unsafety
    
    Introduction
    
    Race
    Race
    
    Introduction
    
    stackoverflow-What-is-a-race-condition
    stackoverflow-What-is-a-race-condition
    
    Introduction
    
    wikipedia-Race-condition
    wikipedia-Race-condition
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-Increment-operator
    TODO-Increment-operator
    
    Introduction
    
    Time-of-check-to-time-of-use
    Time-of-check-to-time-of-use
    
    Introduction
    
    wikipedia-Time-of-check-to-time-of-use
    wikipedia-Time-of-check-to-time-of-use
    
    Introduction
    
    Out-of-order-execution&&memory-reorder
    Out-of-order-execution&&memory-reorder
    
    Introduction
    
    acmqueue-Shared-Variables-or-Memory-Models
    acmqueue-Shared-Variables-or-Memory-Models
    
    Introduction
  - wikipedia-Thread-safety
    wikipedia-Thread-safety
    
    Introduction
- Lifetime
  Lifetime
  - Introduction
  - Creation
    Creation
    
    Introduction
  - Termination
    Termination
    
    Introduction
- Inter-thread-communication
  Inter-thread-communication
  - Introduction
  - Condition-variables-VS-mutex
    Condition-variables-VS-mutex
    
    Introduction
- Topics
  Topics
  - Sleep-forever
    Sleep-forever
    
    Introduction
  - Execute-once
    Execute-once
    
    Introduction
  - Stop-a-blocked-thread
    Stop-a-blocked-thread
    
    Introduction
  - Wait-VS-sleep
    Wait-VS-sleep
    
    Introduction
  - Stop-a-sleeping-thread
    Stop-a-sleeping-thread
    
    Introduction
  - False-death
    False-death
    
    Introduction
  - Thread-pool
    Thread-pool
    
    Introduction
    
    library-progschj-ThreadPool
    library-progschj-ThreadPool
    
    Introduction
- Thread-model
  Thread-model
  - Introduction
  - TODO-Locate-assign-线程定位
    TODO-Locate-assign-线程定位
    
    Introduction
Distributed-computing
Distributed-computing
- Introduction
- Expert-Leslie-Lamport
  Expert-Leslie-Lamport
  - Introduction
- Expert-Dr-Werner-Vogels
  Expert-Dr-Werner-Vogels
  - Introduction
  - Eventually-Consistent-Revisited
    Eventually-Consistent-Revisited
    
    Introduction
- Course
  Course
  - Course-disco.ethz-Distributed-Systems
    Course-disco.ethz-Distributed-Systems
    
    Introduction
  - Course-Northeastern-University-CS7680
    Course-Northeastern-University-CS7680
    
    Introduction
  - Course-Rutgers-Distributed-Systems
    Course-Rutgers-Distributed-Systems
    
    Introduction
    
    Understanding-Paxos
    Understanding-Paxos
    
    Introduction
- Book-Designing-Data-Intensive-Applications
  Book-Designing-Data-Intensive-Applications
  - Introduction
  - Preface
    Preface
    
    Introduction
  - Outline
    Outline
    
    Introduction
  - PART-I
    PART-I
    
    1-Reliable-Scalable-Maintainable-Applications
    1-Reliable-Scalable-Maintainable-Applications
    
    Introduction
  - PART-II-Distributed-Data
    PART-II-Distributed-Data
    
    PART-II-Distributed-Data
    
    5-Replication
    5-Replication
    
    Introduction
    
    8-The-Trouble-with-Distributed-Systems
    8-The-Trouble-with-Distributed-Systems
    
    CHAPTER-8-The-Trouble-with-Distributed-Systems
- Book-Distributed-systems-for-fun-and-profit
  Book-Distributed-systems-for-fun-and-profit
  - Introduction
  - 4-Replication
    4-Replication
    
    Introduction
- dist-prog-book
  dist-prog-book
  - Introduction
- Guide
  Guide
  - Introduction
  - Distributed-system-challenge
    Distributed-system-challenge
    
    Introduction
  - Abstraction
    Abstraction
    
    Introduction
  - CSDN-悟空讲架构-分布式系列
    CSDN-悟空讲架构-分布式系列
    
    Introduction
    
    01-用三国杀讲分布式算法
    01-用三国杀讲分布式算法
    
    Introduction
    
    02-用太极拳讲分布式理论
    02-用太极拳讲分布式理论
    
    Introduction
    
    03-Paxos共识算法
    03-Paxos共识算法
    
    Introduction
    
    04-Raft共识算法
    04-Raft共识算法
    
    Introduction
    
    05-Consistent-hash
    05-Consistent-hash
    
    Introduction
    
    06-Gossip协议
    06-Gossip协议
    
    Introduction
    
    07-分布式系统的坑
    07-分布式系统的坑
    
    Introduction
    
    08-Quorum-NWR
    08-Quorum-NWR
    
    Introduction
    
    服务雪崩
    服务雪崩
    
    Introduction
  - martinfowler-Patterns-of-Distributed-Systems
    martinfowler-Patterns-of-Distributed-Systems
    
    Introduction
- Theory
  Theory
  - Introduction
  - CAP
    CAP
    
    Introduction
  - Consistency
    Consistency
    
    Introduction
    
    Primer
    Primer
    
    Introduction
    
    wikipedia-Consistency-model
    wikipedia-Consistency-model
    
    Introduction
    
    Classification
    Classification
    
    Strong-consistency
    Strong-consistency
    
    Introduction
    
    Linearizability
    Linearizability
    
    Introduction
    
    TODO-Sequential-consistency-VS-linearizability
    
    Sequential-consistency
    Sequential-consistency
    
    Introduction
    
    Weak-consistency
    Weak-consistency
    
    Introduction
    
    Eventual-consistency
    Eventual-consistency
    
    Introduction
    
    Causal-consistency
    Causal-consistency
    
    Introduction
    
    NRW-quorum-consistency
    NRW-quorum-consistency
    
    Introduction
    
    Data-consistency
    Data-consistency
    
    Introduction
  - High-availability
    High-availability
    
    Introduction
    
    Single-point-of-failure
    Single-point-of-failure
    
    Introduction
    
    High-availability-cluster
    High-availability-cluster
    
    Introduction
    
    Replication
    Replication
    
    Introduction
    
    State-machine-replication
    State-machine-replication
    
    Introduction
    
    Conflict-free-replicated-data-type
    Conflict-free-replicated-data-type
    
    Introduction
    
    多活-双活
    多活-双活
    
    Introduction
  - Network-partition
    Network-partition
    
    Introduction
  - Fault-tolerance
    Fault-tolerance
    
    Introduction
    
    Byzantine-Fault-Tolerance
    Byzantine-Fault-Tolerance
    
    Introduction
  - Consensus
    Consensus
    
    Introduction
    
    Quorum
    Quorum
    
    Introduction Introduction
    Table of contents
    
    Multiple model
    
    wikipedia Quorum (distributed computing)
    
    Quorum-based techniques in distributed database systems
    
    Quorum-based voting in commit protocols
    
    Quorum-based voting for replica control
    
    See also
    
    Case study
    
    Case: ZooKeeper
    
    Leader-election
    Leader-election
    
    Introduction
    
    VS-consensus-VS-consistency
  - Time&Ordering
    Time&Ordering
    
    Introduction
    
    Logical-clock
    Logical-clock
    
    Introduction
    
    wikipedia-Logical-clock
    wikipedia-Logical-clock
    
    Introduction
    
    Lamport-timestamp
    Lamport-timestamp
    
    Introduction
    
    paper-Time-Clocks-and-the-Ordering-of-Events-in-a-Distributed-System
    paper-Time-Clocks-and-the-Ordering-of-Events-in-a-Distributed-System
    
    Introduction
    
    Happened-before
    Happened-before
    
    Introduction
    
    Vector-clock
    Vector-clock
    
    Introduction
    
    Version-vector
    Version-vector
    
    Introduction
  - Protocol
    Protocol
    
    Guide
    Guide
    
    Introduction
    
    Expert-范斌
    Expert-范斌
    
    Introduction
    
    漫话分布式系统共识协议2PC-3PC篇
    漫话分布式系统共识协议2PC-3PC篇
    
    Introduction
    
    漫话分布式系统共识协议Paxos篇
    漫话分布式系统共识协议Paxos篇
    
    Introduction
    
    一致性协议算法-2PC-3PC-Paxos-Raft-ZAB-NWR
    一致性协议算法-2PC-3PC-Paxos-Raft-ZAB-NWR
    
    Introduction
    
    csdn-分布式一致性协议
    csdn-分布式一致性协议
    
    Introduction
    
    CSDN-分布式基础通信协议paxos-totem-gossip
    CSDN-分布式基础通信协议paxos-totem-gossip
    
    Introduction
    
    2PC
    2PC
    
    Introduction
    
    3PC
    3PC
    
    Introduction
    
    Paxos
    Paxos
    
    Introduction
    
    paper-Paxos-Made-Simple
    paper-Paxos-Made-Simple
    
    Introduction
    
    wikipedia-Paxos
    wikipedia-Paxos
    
    Introduction
    
    Multi-paxos
    Multi-paxos
    
    Introduction
    
    cnblogs-使用multi-paxos实现日志同步应用
    cnblogs-使用multi-paxos实现日志同步应用
    
    Introduction
    
    CSDN-重要的Paxos算法你看透了么
    CSDN-重要的Paxos算法你看透了么
    
    Introduction
    
    Raft
    Raft
    
    Introduction
    
    paper-In-Search-of-an-Understandable-Consensus-Algorithm
    paper-In-Search-of-an-Understandable-Consensus-Algorithm
    
    Introduction
    
    github-The-Raft-Consensus-Algorithm
    github-The-Raft-Consensus-Algorithm
    
    Introduction
    
    wikipedia-Raft
    wikipedia-Raft
    
    Introduction
    
    Gossip
    Gossip
    
    Introduction
    
    wikipedia-Gossip-protocol
    wikipedia-Gossip-protocol
    
    Introduction
  - Split-brain
    Split-brain
    
    Introduction
- Technique
  Technique
  - Introduction
  - Heartbeat
    Heartbeat
    
    Introduction
  - Distributed-transaction
    Distributed-transaction
    
    Introduction
  - Rendezvous
    Rendezvous
    
    Introduction
- Architecture
  Architecture
  - Introduction
  - Client–server-architecture
    Client–server-architecture
    
    Introduction
  - Peer-to-peer-architecture
    Peer-to-peer-architecture
    
    Introduction
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Quorum

一、"quorum"的意思是"法定人数"，也就是说多少人同意了才作数；一般我们会将它的值设置为majority，那么此时的含义就是: "大多数人同意才算数"、"少数服从多数"。

二、它在distributed computing中有着非常广泛的使用

Multiple model

一、通过**投票**来达成共识。

二、既然有multiple entity，那么由它们来进行vote从而进行决策是自然而然的想法了。

少数服从多数

wikipedia Quorum (distributed computing)

A quorum is the minimum number of votes that a distributed transaction has to obtain in order to be allowed to perform an operation in a distributed system. A quorum-based technique is implemented to enforce consistent operation in a distributed system.

Quorum-based techniques in distributed database systems

Quorum-based voting can be used as a replica control method,[1] as well as a commit method to ensure transaction atomicity in the presence of network partitioning.[1]

Quorum-based voting in commit protocols

In a distributed database system, a transaction could be executing its operations at multiple sites. Since atomicity requires every distributed transaction to be atomic, the transaction must have the same fate (commit or abort) at every site. In case of network partitioning, sites are partitioned and the partitions may not be able to communicate with each other. This is where a quorum-based technique comes in. The fundamental idea is that a transaction is executed if the majority of sites vote to execute it.

Every site in the system is assigned a vote $V_i$ . Let us assume that the total number of votes in the system is $V$ and the abort and commit quorums are $V_a$ and $V_c$ , respectively. Then the following rules must be obeyed in the implementation of the commit protocol:

$V_a + V_c > V$ , where $0 < V_c, V_a$ $ \leq $ $V$ .
Before a transaction commits, it must obtain a commit quorum $V_c$ . The total of at least one site that is prepared to commit and zero or more sites waiting $ \geq $ $V_c$ .[2]
Before a transaction aborts, it must obtain an abort quorum $V_a$ The total of zero or more sites that are prepared to abort or any sites waiting $ \geq $ Va.

The first rule ensures that a transaction cannot be committed and aborted at the same time. The next two rules indicate the votes that a transaction has to obtain before it can terminate one way or the other.

Quorum-based voting for replica control

In replicated databases, a data object has copies present at several sites. To ensure serializability, no two transactions should be allowed to read or write a data item concurrently. In case of replicated databases, a quorum-based replica control protocol can be used to ensure that no two copies of a data item are read or written by two transactions concurrently.

The quorum-based voting for replica control is due to [Gifford, 1979].[3] Each copy of a replicated data item is assigned a vote. Each operation then has to obtain a read quorum (Vr) or a write quorum (Vw) to read or write a data item, respectively. If a given data item has a total of V votes, the quorums have to obey the following rules:

Vr + Vw > V
Vw > V/2

The first rule ensures that a data item is not read and written by two transactions concurrently. Additionally, it ensures that a read quorum contains at least one site with the newest version of the data item. The second rule ensures that two write operations from two transactions cannot occur concurrently on the same data item. The two rules ensure that one-copy serializability is maintained.

Case study

Case: ZooKeeper

在 ZooKeeper Getting Started Guide 中的"Running Replicated ZooKeeper"章节进行了介绍:

But in production, you should run ZooKeeper in replicated mode. A replicated group of servers in the same application is called a quorum, and in replicated mode, all servers in the quorum have copies of the same configuration file.